Browsing by Author "Kong, Lingkai"

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Asimetrik ve Bölgesel Olmayan Federalist Düzenlemeler Çok Uluslu Devletlerde Çoğulcu Birlikteliğe Katkıda Bulunur Mu? Normatif ve Tarihsel Bir Analiz
(2025) Kong, Lingkai; Sezer, Devrim
Bu tez, federalizmi daha geniş felsefi bağlamı içerisinde konumlandırmakta ve düşünceleri incelikli bir gelişim hattı paylaşan ancak çoğu zaman yeterince çalışılmamış üç önemli düşünürün—Johannes Althusius, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon ve Karl Renner—argümanlarını analiz etmektedir. Bu üç düşünürün eserleri birlikte ele alındığında, federalizmin monist kavrayışlarından ayrılan kuramsal bir çizgi ortaya çıkmaktadır. Althusius, federalizmi birliksel (associational) ve uzlaşmacı (consociational) terimlerle anlamlandırmıştır; Proudhon ise Althusius ile açık bir şekilde tartışmaya girmemiş olsa da, Althusçu birliksel geleneği yeniden üretmiş ve genişletmiş, buna ek olarak etnik çoğulculuğa daha güçlü bir vurgu getirmiştir. Bu birliksel çerçeveler, asimetrik federal düzenlemelerin kavramsal temellerini sunmaktadır. Renner ise kişisel ilke (personal principle) aracılığıyla bölgesel olmayan (non-territorial) bir federal yenilik geliştirmiştir. Bu düşünürlerin normatif çözümlemesine ek olarak, tezde İspanya ve Kanada örnekleri üzerinden asimetrik federal yapıları, Belçika örneği üzerinden ise bölgesel olmayan düzenlemeleri gösteren kısa bir ampirik bölüm de bulunmaktadır. Güncel tartışmaları tarihsel anlatılarla birleştirerek ve kuramsal düşünümü ampirik örneklerle destekleyerek, tez büyük ölçüde ihmal edilmiş bir federal düşünce damarını ortaya çıkarmaktadır. Antlaşma ve birlik temelli bu yaklaşım—asimetrik ve bölgesel olmayan özellikleriyle—çok uluslu bir arada yaşama sorunlarını anlamak ve potansiyel olarak çözmek için önemli bir alternatif sunmaktadır.
Differences in Religious Practices of Indigenous Peoples in Rural and Urban Areas of China
(Springer, 2025) Zhao, Zhongqiu; Kong, Lingkai
This study aims to investigate the peculiarities of spiritual mediumship practices in rural and urban regions of China. The sample of respondents was formed from 246 rural residents and 242 urban residents from different regions of China. A specially designed semi-structured questionnaire was used to conduct a cross-cultural study. The study also utilized a psychodiagnostic tool to determine the level of social frustration. The results have revealed that urban and rural residents, regardless of their religious beliefs, have a positive attitude toward folk religion. It is concluded that the archetypal nature of folk religious beliefs and practices, combined with socio-psychological factors, provides a sense of confidence and stability. This allows individuals to gain life guidance and transcendental experience. Prospective research is expected to be directed at a targeted study of the features of the influence of socio-psychological factors on attitudes toward religion and spiritual practices in urban and rural areas, depending on geographical location, age, and gender differences. Further research is planned to focus on a comparative study of the social influence of the most common religions and beliefs (Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity, and Islam), taking into account geographical, age, and gender factors.
Johannes Althusius: The First Federalist in Early Modern Times
(MDPI, 2025) Kong, Lingkai
Johannes Althusius (1563-1638) was a pioneer of early modern federalism. Opposing Jean Bodin's theory of absolute sovereignty, his theory, centered on association and symbiosis, laid the groundwork for later concepts such as associationalism, consociationalism, and the principle of subsidiarity. While his ideas have been rediscovered and reinterpreted by scholars since the 20th century, systematic research on his federalist framework, especially contrasting it with rival theories of that time, remains insufficient. This article addresses this research gap by systematically exploring Althusius's federalism. It argues that Althusius's covenant-based, multi-level associational/federal framework provided a counter-theory to the concept of absolute sovereignty. Systematically studying his federalism not only helps to restore his federalist ideas to their rightful place in the history of federalist thought, but also provides insights for contemporary governance paradigms struggling with modern pluralism.
Citation - Scopus: 1
Proudhon's Critique of Nationalism in His Federalism Vision
(MDPI, 2025) Kong, Lingkai
This study first situates the discourse on Proudhon's federalism and nationalism within the framework of his comprehensive economic, social, and philosophical system. Proudhon attempts to construct a federalism based on an associational and decentralized political structure that could accommodate plural groups and avoid the exclusive interpretation of sovereignty that prevailed in nationalism at the time. Such federalism is not only a design of political institutions but also a reflection of his economic mutualism and the idea of commutative justice. Then, this study proposes a relatively concise and intuitive dual critique framework to focus on how his federalism directly refutes nationalism. Proudhon's federalism aims to protect the culture, language, and identity of minority groups from the oppression of the unitary nation-state internally, and advocates the establishment of an external confederation beyond national borders to eliminate national conflicts and achieve universal peace.
Citation - WoS: 1
The Sacred Federation of Tibet and the Mongol Empire
(Mdpi, 2024) Kong, Lingkai
This article re-examines the history of the Mongol Empire's rule over Tibet, analyzing the complex institutional and religious relationships between the Mongol Empire and Tibet from an innovative perspective. We find that, unlike its military conquests in other parts of the world, the Mongol Empire actually formed a kind of federation with Tibet based on Buddhism. The Mongol Empire embraced Tibetan Buddhism as its state religion and venerated the head of the Sakya school as a spiritual guide. Concurrently, the establishment of the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs in the Mongol capital served as a nominal governing body over Tibet, while in reality, it ensured a significant degree of autonomy for the region. Furthermore, the leaders of the Mongol Empire felt endowed with the legitimacy to conquer the world after being blessed by Tibetan Buddhism as Mahakala, the dark incarnation of Avalokiteshvara. In addition, the article also provides a detailed account of the prosperity of Buddhism within the Mongol Empire, in terms of its economic, artistic, and philosophical aspects. The discovery of this evidence is of great significance, since it not only supports reinterpretation of the historical evolution of the Mongol Empire and Tibet, but also allows us to observe the status of Tibetan Buddhism in the Mongol Empire from a new perspective, and to explore the unexpected institutional innovations of the federation reflected in the Mongol-Tibetan relationship.