Hate Speech on Social Media: A Systemic Narrative Review of Political Science Contributions

Abstract

Cross-national public opinion surveys show that a significant majority of young people are frequently exposed to hateful content on social media, which suggest the need to better understand its political implications. This systematic narrative literature review addresses three key questions: (1) Which factors have been explored in political science as the main drivers of hate speech on social media? (2) What do empirical studies in political science suggest about the political consequences of online hate speech? (3) What strategies have been proposed within the political science literature to address and counteract these dynamics? Based on an analysis of 79 research articles published in the field of political science and international relations retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection, this review found that online hate is linked to social media platform policies, national and international regulatory frameworks, perceived threats to in-group identity, far-right and populist rhetoric, politically significant events such as elections, the narratives of traditional media, the post-truth environment, and historical animosities. The literature shows that hate speech normalizes discriminatory behavior, silences opposing voices, and mobilizes organized hate. In response, political science research underscores the importance of online deterrence mechanisms, counter-speech, allyship, and digital literacy as strategies to combat hate during the social media era.